Woman's Skirt
Chinese Mamianqun

Dimensions, Piece A:

Measurement of the waist, flat: 28.25 inches (71.75 cm)
Width of waistband: 3 inches (7.62 cm)
Length, top of the waist to hem: 35.5 inches (90.17 cm)

Dimensions, Piece B:

Measurement of the waist, flat: 28 inches (71.12)
Width of waistband: 3 inches (7.62 cm)
Length, top of the waist to hem: 36 inches (91.44 cm)

Dimensions of skirt put together: Waist: 29 inches (73.66 cm)
Width of waistband: 3 inches (7.62 cm)
Length, top of the waist to hem: 35.5 inches (90.17 cm)

Both pieces feature a 2.5-inch wide white silk border at the hems and bordering the center panels (6.35 cm)

The skirt is constructed of two pieces that connect at the waist, made of a red damask fabric with a pale green, plain-weave interior lining. Although a microscopic fiber analysis was not done, both fabrics are probably silk. The damask fabric features a multitude of woven Chinese symbolism, including phoenixes, pomegranates, clouds, endless knots, and the wheel of law. These symbols will be discussed more in-depth in the subsequent section. Both pieces feature accordion pleats that connect at the muslin waistband. When expanded, the pleats resemble honeycombs.

In this discussion, I will be referencing piece A and piece B. The design of the two pieces, including the embroidery and panels, are generally the same. Subtle differences between the two pieces aid in understanding the construction of the garment. 

The garment is hand-sewn which is consistent with the time period, as sewing machines were not widely used in China until the Republican period (Chan). The drawn pattern for the embroidery is clearly visible is areas of thread loss.

The main differences between the two sides are evident in the closures at the waistbands. Piece A features two loops attached to the center front outer side of the waistband, with a third loop sewn to the viewer's left end, and two knotted buttons on the opposite end for fastening, although one button has torn off. Piece B features two loops attached to the center back on the inside of the waistband, with one loop (tied with a fragment of brown string) on the viewer's right side, and two knotted buttons on the opposite end for fastening. These loop and button placements suggest that piece B is worn with the decorated panel on the backside of the wearer. Piece A has the decorated panel the front side of the garment. The pleats hang at the sides. The fragment of brown string indicates where internal ties would hold the skirt halves together; each single loop having a tie that would encircle the waist.

The decorative elements include an embroidered border edged with black satin cording appliquéd along the hem and center panels, a brocade ribbon stitched to echo the lines of the applique, and two appliquéd rectangles, also embroidered. Both the embrodiered appliqué and the brocade ribbon were attached to the skirt panels prior to making the pleats. The appliqué border, of white silk satin, measures approximately 2.5 inch wide around the hem and partially along the edges of the center panels. The curved lines on the two center panels emulate the shapes created by cloud collars. The brocade ribbon measures approximately 1.25 inches wide and is colored with yarns of blue, green, purple, beige and pink or, perhaps, once red. The two rectangles of embroidery will be discussed further in the paper.

Along the hem, the border embroidery on white satin fabric features natural and man-made details, including pine trees, maple trees, leaves, a variety of flowers, bridges, butterflies, bats and Taihu rocks with gazebos and trellises. These details utilize satin and running embroidery stitches. No human figures appear in the embroidery around the hem.  

The center panel of both pieces is bordered with the same silk embroidery and includes women in addition to natural and structural elements. On piece A, four individual women engage in various activities; one appears to be sitting by the water with a handheld fan, another appears to be gesturing with her hands, and the other two appear to have something in their hands, perhaps a musical instrument. Two women, set close to the hem, work together handling a piece of white cloth with a blue floral design. Piece B features four women also engaged in individual activities, and a pair women who appear to be playing a game or other activity with a board or piece of paper.

All the women are wearing hair accessories and the same ensemble of a robe and a skirt in different colors. The faces, hair, and robes were created using a satin stitch, while a running stitch was used to create face details and hair accessories. The skirts worn by the women feature an eyelet stitch to achieve the patterning detail. Embroidery details on the center panels also include pine trees, maple trees, leaves, water, a variety of flowers, Chinese pavilions, bridges, and Taihu rocks. These elements were made with satin stitching and running stitches for detailing. The shaped section of each white silk border may have been made from a repurposed piece of embroidery, as the design has obviously been cut to shape. Each corner of the center panels are cut and edged with black cording to reveal a light purple silk damask fabric underneath.

Each center panel features a rectangular appliqué with a gold-couched background and embroidery details. The embroideries depict a scene with two women, perhaps in conversation, wearing similar robes and skirts as with the other human forms.The same techniques were used as mentioned above; the face and hair are satin stitched, the face details and hair accessories use a running stitch, and the skirts feature an eyelet stitch. Also present on each panel are a pavilion, a bridge, a maple tree, and leaves, with Taihu rocks, butterflies, flowers, and what appears to be half of a vase. These elements all utilize satin stitching paired with running stitches for detail.

Historical Context

After conquering China, the Manchu people ruled as the Qing dynasty from 1644-1911. Qing rulers came from the northern Manchuria region, overthrowing the ethnic Chinese Han people. Both groups’ apparel reflected their ethnic origin, therefore the Manchu rulers of the Qing dynasty enacted dress authority to maintain control. The Manchu people were nomadic hunters and horseriders. Their garments were often based on animal skins and comprised of trousers, boots, paired aprons, and jackets. The shape of Manchu garments is tied to its functionality, protection from exposure, and maneuverability. Despite moving south and conquering the Forbidden City, the Manchu people still honored their clothing traditions (Fenby, 2016, p.22). A common garment worn by women on formal occasions were a pair of aprons that covered trousers worn underneath. These aprons allowed women to dress with “sedentary dignity” while still allowing movement and activity (Fenby, 2016, p. 27).

While paired aprons originated in the steppes with the Manchu people, the silhouette influenced and was most popularly worn in Han fashion. In post Han China, the paired apron consisted of two identical pleated pieces, each part consisting of a straight panel with a pleated section to the left. The straight panels were arranged at the center front and back, with pleating fanning out on the sides. Decoration was concentrated in the lower section of the garment as the upper section would have been covered by a robe (Fenby, 2016, p.27; Vollmer, 2000, p.49-51).

As a means of incorporating men into the Machu’s rule and to avoid ethnic Chinese domination, all men from all ethnicities were expected to dress in traditional Manchu garments. However, these rules did not apply to women, who were excluded from court status, and many continued to wear their own style of Han clothing. At the beginning of the Qing dynasty the differences between Manchu and Chinese dress were easier to identify. But by the end of the 18th century these differences became blurred, and by the turn of into the 20th century the differences became indistinguishable (Major and Steele, 1999; Wu, 2010). Han and Manchu women borrowed styles from each other, which makes it difficult to determine if this particular garment was worn by a Manchu woman or a Chinese Han woman.

Prior to overtaking China, Manchu people were gifted Chinese robes from the Han, therefore Manchu imperial regalia was influenced by the embellishments of dragon robes (Major and Steele, 1999, p. 29). During the Qing dynasty, Manchu society adopted traditional Han Chinese colors and symbols, while Han Chinese people adopted Manchu silhouettes (Major and Steele, 1999, p.49). Starting in the 18th century Han Chinese and Manchu tailors utilized the same silk fabrics and embellishment while Han Chinese tailors began utilizing Manchu style loop and toggle buttons (Major and Steele, 1999, p.48). This exchange of design elements can be seen in the evolution of women's dress in 19th and early 20th century China.

The traditional Han bridal dress developed through strict dress codes in the Ming dynasty and were used until the fall of the Qing dynasty. Under Manchu rule, Han women were not required to follow sartorial codes and therefore traditional bridal dress emulated the styles of the Ming dynasty. Han woman’s formal attire in the Qing dynasty included an ao (a padded coat), a shan (a coat without padding), a floor length skirt, and ku (trousers). The amount of pleats and embroidery varied throughout the dynasty, however a popular form of wedding skirt was red and consisted of two identical parts. Additionally, bandings were applied at the hem of the skirt and to frame the panels in black or blue, emphasizing the skirts’ structure. These red bridal skirts also required a white waistband made of cotton. This waistband provided better grip but also had symbolic meaning. The Chinese name for waistband, yaotou, and the color white, bai, combine to create the word baitou daolao meaning ‘May you have a long and full life together’. This type of skirt’s origins are from nomadic traditions even before the Manchu people, however it was almost exclusively worn by Han Chinese women in the Qing dynasty (Wu, 2010).

The Collection’s garment is likely a mamianqun, which translates to ‘horse face pleated skirt’ in English. It is a type of traditional qun, or skirt, worn by Han Chinese women in Hanfu. Mamianquns can be dated to the Song dynasty (960-1279), however they were popularized by women in the Ming and Qing dynasties (Holland, 2022). The typical construction of these skirts consisted of two identical parts with two separate waistbands.

The Qing dynasty saw subtle changes in the cut and decoration of these skirts across the centuries. 18th century mamianqun are defined by the same thematic elements across all panels, and often there is a continuing landscape decoration across the panels. Through the 19th century these skirts’ side panels consisted of five, seven, nine, eleven and even twelve gores. However, by the second half of the 19th century, the presence of mechanical looms in China made less-expensive silk fabrics available for everyday wear. As a result, handwoven silk fabrics helped create ostentatiously embroidered garments. Skirts worn by women of high status required more material and embroidery. Full lengths of fabric were vertically seamed and pleated to create volume at the sides. These pleats were held in place with a controlling stitch at regular intervals, and on the adjoining pleat the first stitch is made half way between the first pleat’s stitches. The pleats resemble honeycombs once expanded (Hays, 1989, p.11- 13). This is likely the technique utilized in the Collection’s garment.

Early 19th century skirts feature large central motifs surrounded by smaller symbols. By the second half of the century, reflecting deteriorating economic conditions, motifs were smaller, less detailed, repetitive, and less expensive. Another clue that helps to establish a date for the Collection’s skirt is the decorative brocade ribbon. At the beginning of the 19th century narrow woven ribbons were used to edge the panels and appliqués; as the century progressed these ribbons became wider and more colorful. Records indicate that green and purple analine dyes entered China in 1871, however this is not necessarily useful in dating the skirt, as vegetable dyes were still used in China after 1871 (Hays, 1989, p.17,21).

Also useful in establishing a date range is an examination of embroidery techniques and materials. 18th century embroidery thread is thin, delicate and flat lying, whereas 19th century thread is more robust which creates a more full bodied appearance. At the beginning of the 19th century Chinese knots were widely used, but by the end of the century this technique was typically only used for central motifs or other smaller motifs considered significant. Additionally, embroideries from the first half of the 19th century feature gold wrapped thread couched with white or yellow threads (Hays, 1989, p.21-23). The thread used for couching the gold wrapped thread on the Collection’s garment is a light tan color.

Symbolic Analysis

When discussing the Collection’s garment, it is important to consider the symbolic elements present on the skirt. Woven into the base red brocade fabric is a repeated pattern of phoenixes, pomegranates, clouds, endless knots, and wheels of law. The phoenix is an important symbol in Chinese culture. A female phoenix is called ‘huang’ and it is a popular wedding motif as it is the emblem of the empress of China. On their wedding days, Chinese women are considered ‘empress for the day’ and the phoenix symbology reflects this. Additionally, the phoenix represents times of peace and prosperity (Symbols; Vollmer, 1980). Influenced by Buddhism, pomegranates in China are accepted as a symbol of fertility, abundance, and prosperity. Clouds are considered omens of peace and symbol of the heavens. The endless knot is on of the eight buddhist emblems and symbolizes infinite widsom and compassion of the Buddha. The wheel of law is also one of the eight Buddhsit symbols, it symbolizes the Buddhist Doctrine (Symbols).

A variety of flowers are featured throughout the embroidered borders. On the hem’s border and the front/back panel’s border there are plum blossom flowers. The flower of January and the Five Blessings in Chinese wufu, it symbolizes strength, nobility, and modesty. The five petals represent happiness, wealth, longevity, peace, and success (Chinese Flowers). Also along the hem’s border and the front panel’s border are peach blossom flowers and chrysanthemums. The flower of March and powerful immortals, peach blossoms symbolize longevity and love. Peach flowers, more specifically, symbolize love, romance, beautiful women, and blessed couples. Chrysanthemums are the flower of September, and they bloom around the Double Ninth Festival. With nine being one the most important numbers in Chinese culture, these flowers represent longevity, auspiciousness, and decency.

Along the hem’s border there appears to be the flower of October, hibiscus. This flower represents virtuosity, gorgeousness, morality, and one’s deep longing for their beloved ones. On the border panel, there also appears to be camellia, which is considered the flower of November. This flower’s rich colors, that appear in cold weather, symbolize auspiciousness, persistence, and elegance. Additionally, on the right side of the border panels there is the narcissus, the flower of purity and blessings. Also on the border panel, there appears to be orchids and bamboo.

On the central gold panel on the front and back panels there are peonies, which is one of the most popular flowers in China. Lotuses are also present in the gold panel, another one of the eight Budhist emblems, which symbolizes purity (Chinese Flowers).

The Eight Buddhist Emblems combine the Eight Precious Objects and the Eight Immortals Implements as decorative symbols. The eight symbols include the lotus flower, the wheel of law, a canopy or parasol, paired fish, a conch shell, a victory standard, an endless knot, and a vase (Symbols). The presence of lotus flowers, the wheel of law, and the endless knot have been discussed, however, a vase and canopy are also present on this garment.

Other symbols include the man-made structures, which can be assumed as holding symbolic meaning similar to a canopy. Canopies symbolize protection and spiritual power. Within the gold rectangular appliqué, there appears to be half a vase. Vases symbolize the elixir of life, as they are a physical manifestation of a container of treasures that represent the fullfillment of wishes (Symbols). Bridges represent connection and communication (Bridges symbolize...). Throughout the trim of the garment are Taihu rocks. Taihu rocks are known as ‘scholars’ rocks’ and are a symbol of longevity. 

Also present throughout all embroidery elements are butterflies. In Chinese culture, butterflies hold a variety of symbolic significance. They can symbolize marital love, freedom, beauty, and soul while at the same time, their metamorphosis can represent death, passing joy, vulnerability of life, and vanity (Butterflies 蝴蝶.). Related to butterflies, bats appear throughout the hem and central panel borders. Bats are called fu in Chinese culture, which when pronounced in a specific way, means blessing. In southern China butterflies can also be called fu, which may mean ‘eighty years or age’ and symbolize wishes for a long life, marital happiness, and fidelity (Hays, 1989, p.31). Also present are greeting pines.

In addition to individual symbolic meaning, groups of symbols also contain significance. The combination of pine, bamboo, and plum blossoms represent the ‘Three Friends of Winter’. While this group of symbols are rarely seen paired together on skirts, the Collection’s garment depicts them. These plants thrive in the harsh winter climate, therefore they symbolize steadfastness, perseverance, and resilience (Three Friends: Pine, Bamboo, and Plum). Another group of symbols is ‘The Flowers of the Twelve Months’ which depict eleven flowers surrounding a central peony. This group includes one flower for every month in the year and conveys wishes for happiness throughout the year. This collection of motifs was popular from the middle of the 19th century and into the early 20th century. Han Chinese women were limited in their activities due to foot binding, therefore the language of flowers were significant for subtle communication (Hays, 1989, p. 31-32). The collection’s garment only depicts nine of the twelve flowers.

Also signifcant to symbolic analysis is understanding the importance of red in Chinese culture. Red symbolizes fire and reflects wishes for good fortune, happiness, Summer, and the prime of life. The color is reserved for the New Year and in celebrating major familial life events such as births, weddings, and significant birthdays. Red is the color of luck and is meant to protect the wearer from evil (Seeing Red, 2022;Vollmer, 2000, p.50).

While red skirts were typical for weddings, not every red skirt is necessarily a wedding skirt, as any person related to the bride was required to wear red (Hays, 1989, p.23). A bride’s red skirt would be patterned with flowers, bats, butterflies and the emblem of an empress–feng huang (Hays, 1989, p.27).

Significance

Given the information above, an estimate regarding when the skirt was made and worn can be assumed. During the second half of the 19th century, the mechanization of woven silk fabrics allowed for increased usage of fabric in paired skirts. The resulting silhouette moved away from several gores along the side panels to fine pleating. The pleats were stitched down to create a honeycomb effect when expanded; this feature is present in the Collection’s garment. Also during the second half of the 19th century, smaller motifs in higher numbers were common compared to the first half of the decade. The Collection’s garment features a multitude of small motifs, and the central motif is comprised of small components.

At the beginning of the century, woven ribbons were used to edge panels on paired skirts. As the century progressed these ribbons became wider and more colorful. This is evident in the Collection’s garment, which feature colorful brocade weaving. White or yellow embroidery threads were commonly used to couch gold wrapped thread at the beginning of the 19th century. This feature is also evident within the Collection’s garment. Finally, there is an absence of the Chinese knot embroidery technique, which was widely used at the beginning of the century but diminished as the century progressed. It can concluded that the mix of techniques from the first and second half of the 19th century means that this garment was made and likely worn in the middle of the 19th century. Also important to note, Manchu women often wore long robes and pants during the Qing dynasty, while Han Chinese women more often wore paired overskirts.

The symbolic analysis provides clues as to who would have worn this garment and why. The red brocade silk fabric suggests that this garment could have been worn by a high ranking woman. However, it could have also been worn by a lower ranking woman on her wedding day. This can be assumed and is likely because all Chinese women, regardless of rank, were considered empresses of their wedding day. All members of the bride’s family wore red on their wedding day, therefore this alone does not necessarily suggest that the woman who wore this garment was a bride.

An analysis of the symbology woven and embroidered into the garment helps clarify the use of this skirt. Although the muslin waist served a functional purpose, the symbolic combination of the red body and the white muslin waist point to the fact that this was worn in a wedding assemble. Additionally, it is covered with symbols indicative of wishes for a long, happy, and successful marriage. The symbols woven into the fabric represent peace, prosperity, fertility, abundance, and wisdom. It is also important to note that the huang woven into the brocade is a popular Chinese wedding motif. The symbols embroidered onto the garment include imagery of flowers, foliage, women, structures, animals, and women. These symbols are meant to bring prosperity, abundance, peace, wisdom, strength, modesty, longevity, wealth, happiness, marital love, romance, gorgeousness, virtuosity, persistence, elegance, purity, protection, fidelity, a long life, a blessed marriage, and fullfillment of wishes to the wearer. Additionally, the depictions of women portray domestic life and a woman’s sedentary role. Given the historical context, garment construction, and symbolic analysis, it can be presumed that the collection’s garment was worn by a Han Chinese woman on her wedding day.

Contemporary Significance

Given the rise in popularity of the Hanfu subculture in contemporary China, mamianquns, such as the one in the Collection, have been the topic of discussion in recent years. The West historically is drawn to Eastern styles of dress as means of demonstrating exotisim without honoring or understanding Eastern clothing traditions. Princess Diana, an important style influence in the West, wore a red Qing style mamianqun to her engagement meeting with Prince Charles. The skirt even included symbology representative of wishes for a successful marriage. While the embroidery and red color of Princess Diana’s skirt was appropriate, and the garment itself could have been worn with the right intentions, there were modification made that are not present on a traditional bridal mamianqun. The skirt is calf length and does not feature the important and symbolic white waist (Yeng, 2022). In another instance, Dior was accused of culturally appropriating mamianquns in their Fall 2022 collection. Although this style of skirt had been worn in China for centuries, dating back to the Song dynasty but also widely worn throughout the Ming and Qing dynasty, Dior described this skirt as a ‘hallmark Dior silhouette’ (Holland, 2022). Both these instances demonstrate Western style leaders using traditional Chinese dress for aesthetic reasons, disregarding important symbolic meanings and history.

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